Session 6E

Much SLA research has documented the processes involved in learning second/foreign languages, yet far less research has focused on the factors that contribute to the long-term retention of attained L2 skills. Thus, little is known about the length of time that L2 learners can expect to retain their language skills without continued L2 exposure. To reliably investigate the long-term evolution of L2 skills (retention vs attrition), a longitudinal research design is necessary, and knowing peak attainment (Bardovi-Harlig & Stringer, 2010; Schmid & Mehotcheva, 2012), when learners were the most proficient, allows measuring subsequent changes. Although SLA researchers acknowledge the primacy of longitudinal data, multi-year datasets are extremely rare. 
This presentation reports on an on-going 8-year longitudinal study exploring the development and maintenance of advanced L2 proficiency by English L1-speaking participants who completed degrees in Spanish (n=13) and French (n=15) that involved a 9-month stay abroad. The current analysis involved data collected from the pre-sojourn, in-sojourn 3 (end of study abroad), post-sojourn 3, and post-sojourn 4 (see Table) during which time participants completed a range of language assessments and questionnaires about language use.
Data Collection Timeline.pdf (grey shaded rows represent data used in the current analysis)

L2 interview data were transcribed following CHAT conventions and used to acquire fluency and lexical diversity measures. Based on interview and questionnaire data, participants were coded as having either consistent or limited L2 exposure since university graduation (2013). A linear mixed-effects regression model was conducted to investigate the relationship between type of exposure (limited or consistent) and the linguistic variables analyzed (oral proficiency, oral fluency, lexical diversity), and to examine whether exposure effects were mediated by study-abroad end proficiency. Results demonstrate a significant decrease for the limited exposure group between graduation (2013) and Post-sojourn 3 (2016) only on oral proficiency and fluency. There were no changes between 2016 and 2019. The consistent exposure group retained the gains made during their year abroad across all post-sojourn time points. Additionally, the results show that although there was a positive correlation between study abroad end proficiency and Post-sojourn 4 scores, the limited exposure variable accounted for more of the variation in scores. These results suggest that type of exposure (limited vs consistent) is an important variable in long-term retention of L2 oral skills.

References
Bardovi-Harlig, K. & Stringer, D. (2010). Variables in second language attrition: Advancing the state of the art. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32, 1–45.
Schmid, M., & Mehotcheva, T. (2012). Foreign language attrition. Dutch Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1, 102–124.

Since its early stages, much research into study abroad (henceforth SA) has focused on measuring outcomes in terms of language development and has accumulated evidence for the effectiveness of SA for language learning (Borràs & Llanes, 2021; Llanes, 2011). Oral production has been the most frequently investigated skill and the only domain for which conclusive research findings exist indicating that the SA context is more beneficial for oral proficiency gains than at home instruction (Borràs & Llanes, 2021; Llanes, 2011). The SA context is believed to be superior because it offers potentially unlimited access to language learning opportunities and language practice in authentic contexts with proficient speakers (Kinginger, 2008). Arguably, proficiency gains depend on the extent and quality of language interactions that SA students experience. The opportunities for target language interaction have been critically affected by the COVID-19 pandemic as many classic opportunities for social networking of SA students, such as physical classrooms, university societies and clubs, extracurricular activities, etc., fell away. Consequently, it seems vital to investigate if and to what extent this might have affected the L2 oral proficiency gains of SA students during the pandemic.
The contribution presents a comparative study of the oral proficiency gains of 21 pre-COVID-19 and 21 COVID-19 SA students, matched for important background variables such as pre-departure proficiency, duration of stay, accommodation, and destination. The students are German-speaking students from Swiss, German or Austrian tertiary institutions who spent at least eight weeks in an English-speaking area or attended an English-speaking program in an ELFSA context (see Köylü, 2021). The pre-COVID-19 students studied abroad before the outbreak of the pandemic and the COVID-19 students studied abroad during later waves of the pandemic (autumn 2020, spring and/or autumn 2021). Students studying abroad during the first wave of the pandemic, when strict lockdowns were implemented, were excluded from the analysis. Participants' English oral proficiency was measured by means of an Oral Proficiency Interview by Computer (OPIc) before and after the stay abroad. Furthermore, self-reported linguistic gains were measured using a retrospective pre-post design. In the present contribution we will compare the oral proficiency gains as well as the self-assessed general proficiency gains by the SA students studying abroad before the outbreak of the pandemic and during the pandemic and discuss practical implications thereof. The data will be analyzed by means of analysis of covariance. 


References
Borràs, J., & Llanes, À. (2021). Re-examining the impact of study abroad on L2 development: a critical overview. The Language Learning Journal, 49(5), 527-540. 
Kinginger, C. (2008). Language learning in study abroad: Case studies of Americans in France. The Modern Language Journal 92: 1–124
Köylü, Z. (2021). The ERASMUS sojourn: does the destination country or pre-departure
proficiency impact oral proficiency gains?. The Language Learning Journal, 1-13.
Llanes, À. (2011). The many faces of study abroad: An update on the research on L2 gains emerged during a study abroad experience. International Journal of Multilingualism, 8(3), 189-215.

Inner speech, i.e. speaking to oneself in silence (Morin, 2018), is crucial in performing higher level cognitive functions, including gaining self-knowledge, self-regulation, and self-reflection (Morin, 2018). Studies in multilingualism show that the first language (L1) is the preferred language in inner speech, while languages learnt later in life (LX) are also used in inner speech in a varying degree and domain (see Leung & Dewaele, 2021). Most research focused on the functions of inner speech to the self and multilingual's language preference in inner speech. Little has been researched on the implication of using an LX in inner speech from an acculturation perspective. Does using the local language in inner speech improves sociocultural adaptation, i.e. how well sojourners function in a new context (Wilson et al., 2017)? What is the profile of sojourners who use the local language in inner speech frequently and adapt better? 
This longitudinal mixed-methods study involved the participation of 167 Chinese university in the UK. All participants filled out an online questionnaire at the beginning (Time 1) and the end of the academic year (Time 2). The questionnaire included an inner speech scale (Leung & Dewaele, 2021), the revised sociocultural adaptation scale (SCAS) (Wilson et al., 2017), and two open-ended questions on their inner speech experiences. Seven participants were further interviewed after completing the questionnaire. Regression analyses show that a frequent English use in general inner speech predicts higher sociocultural adaptation at Time 1 and Time 2; while a frequent English use in academic inner speech predicts higher sociocultural adaptation at Time 2 only. The next stage of analysis involved subtracting the inner speech scale score and the SCAS score from Time 2 to Time 1. The combination of increase and decrease of the two scores (2x2) created four groups. Participants' responses to the open-ended questions in these four groups were analysed using thematic analysis. Together with the follow-up interviews, participants' narratives show a strong English-speaking social network, a positive outlook on life, and openness to new culture, are reasons behind their increased use of English in inner speech and higher sociocultural adaptation. 
This study establishes a link between the self, language use in inner speech, and the social sphere, sociocultural adaptation to a new cultural setting. The results contribute to emotional acculturation and linguistic acculturation. Implications of this study apply to higher education practices to improve international students' well-being. 
References:
Leung, P. P. Y., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2021). Does the Complementarity Principle apply to inner speech? A mixed-methods study on multilingual Chinese university students in the UK. International Journal of Multilingualism, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2021.1960534
Morin, A. (2018). The self-reflective functions of inner speech. In P. Langland-Hassan & A. Vicente (Eds.), Inner Speech: New Voices (Vol. 1, pp. 276–298). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796640.003.0012
Wilson, J., Ward, C., Fetvadjiev, V. H., & Bethel, A. (2017). Measuring cultural competencies: The development and validation of a revised measure of sociocultural adaptation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48(10), 1475–1506. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022117732721

Studies conducted in the field of study abroad and language learning can be divided into those that have had a more linguistic orientation (e.g. Borràs & Llanes, 2021) and those with a more sociocultural inclination (e.g. Kalocsái, 2014). The results of the research concerned with language gains show that study abroad seems to be a productive environment for language learning (e.g. Kinginger, 2009). Hence, studies oriented towards the sociocultural side of the experience (e.g. Benson et al., 2013) look into language learning as part of a complex life experience, in which language(s), identities, motives, desires, opportunities to learn, circumstances, and reactions to them are deeply entangled. The present study is situated within this field.
Data is elicited through thematic analysis of interviews conducted with 16 higher education students who decided to enrol in a period of study at a foreign university in either Northern (Finland), Eastern (Romania) or Southern (Catalonia) Europe. For the contrastive purpose of the paper, a varied sample of participants was selected, according to their nationalities (11) and fields of study (13).
The aim of this research is shedding light on the role of the context when it comes to language learning in studying abroad through the Erasmus program. For this aim, the expectations of the students in each group with respect to their Erasmus stay will be analyzed with the objective to understand how desire for studying abroad is framed in terms of potential goals and its perceived advantages, establishing patterns of expectations, forms of investment, and how each of them is weighted. The final objective is to grasp who is anticipating what and what is the role of languages and language learning in the Erasmus experience in each of the three contexts. In the second place, the perceived degree of accomplishment of the initial expectations at the end of the stay abroad will be examined. This will enable us to shed light on the relationship between the discourse behind the program to which the participants might have actually adhered and the actual impact of the stay, as perceived by the students in each of the three contexts at the end of their sojourn. 



Benson, P., Barkhuizen, G., Bodycott, P., & Brown, J. (2013). Second Language Identity in Narratives of Study Abroad. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Borràs, J. & Llanes, À. (2021). Investigating the impact of a semester-long study abroad program on L2 reading and vocabulary development. Study Abroad Research in Second Language Acquisition and International Education 6 (2): 276-297.
Kalocsái, K. (2014). Communities of Practice and English as a Lingua Franca. A study of Erasmus students in a Central European context. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
Kinginger, C. (2009). Language Learning and Study Abroad: A Critical Reading of the Research. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave/Macmillan.