Session 4F

There is evidence that in order to promote incidental vocabulary learning from reading, multiple exposures to the same target words are needed (Webb, 2007). There is not much evidence, however, as to whether novel words are learned more successfully if those multiple exposures are provided in the same text read multiple times or in different texts. Although repetitions in the same context might lead to faster recognition of novel vocabulary, reading the same text multiple times could also cause boredom and lack of attention, which could in turn lead to fewer vocabulary gains (Liu & Todd, 2016). Additionally, encountering words in varied contexts seems to lead to better learning than when they are met in repeated contexts, as the different contexts support the establishment of richer semantic associations (e.g., Ferreira & Ellis, 2016).
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect that repeated reading in same vs. different contexts had on the incidental learning of vocabulary. Forty-eight adult Spanish EFL learners followed two repeated-reading sessions in which they were exposed to two sets of 10 novel words. One set appeared in the same text read three times and another one in three different texts in a counterbalanced fashion. The four target texts, which were around 950 words long each, were narrative stories using vocabulary from the 3,000 most frequent families. The novel words were pseudowords that replaced countable, high frequency nouns. The target words appeared three times in each text, and thus were encountered nine times in total. Participants' knowledge of the target vocabulary was assessed immediately after the last reading and one week later through a form-recognition test (in which they had to select the pseudowords they had encountered in the texts from each set from a pool of pseudowords including 10 other distractors), a meaning recall test (in which they had to provide the translation or definition of the target pseudowords), and a meaning recognition multiple-choice test (in which they selected the most appropriate meaning for each target pseudoword). Additionally, measures of general vocabulary and proficiency were also obtained in order to control for participants' previous knowledge of English.
The results of the generalized linear models suggest differences between conditions, with an advantage of the same condition on the immediate test and of the different condition on the delayed test. While it was easier to infer the meaning of novel words shortly after the last reading in the same condition, the richer semantic associations created in the different condition led to more durable knowledge.
References
Ferreira, R. A., & Ellis, A. W. (2016). Effects of contextual diversity on semantic decision and reading aloud: Evidence from a word learning study in English as a second language. Studies in Psychology, 37, 162–182
Liu, Y.-T., & Todd, A. G. (2016). Implementation of assisted repeated reading techniques for the incidental acquisition of novel foreign vocabulary. Language Teaching Research, 20(1), 53–74. 
Webb, S. (2007). The effects of repetition on vocabulary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 28(1), 46-65.

Collocations play a crucial role in the development of fluent, nativelike second language knowledge. A number of studies have demonstrated that collocations can be learned from repeated exposure in meaning-focused input (e.g., Webb et al., 2013), and that typographic enhancement can contribute to learning of collocations encountered in written texts (e.g., Choi, 2017). However, because collocation knowledge is assumed to develop gradually from repeated exposure, it is worth asking whether a local attention-raising technique has any durable effect on collocation processing and learning (Pellicer-Sánchez, 2020). Further, there is little evidence that typographic enhancement also contributes to processing fluency of collocations at initial stages of learning. Our study investigates to what extent typographic enhancement affects online processing of collocations during reading, both in the first, enhanced exposure, and in later unenhanced exposures. It also investigates the effects of repeated exposure during reading and typographic enhancement on recall and recognition of collocations after a one-week delay.
Fifty-seven learners of English as a foreign language took part in a reading experiment spread over three weeks. In week 1, they read an English text containing 24 modifier-noun collocations while their eye movements were recorded. Textual enhancement was counterbalanced so that each participant encountered 12 enhanced and 12 unenhanced collocations. In week 2, the same collocations were encountered six times in new, unenhanced contexts, followed by a sentence-reading task in which eye-tracking was used to measure processing fluency of the collocations compared to novel word pairs. In week 3, participants completed two delayed tests of collocation knowledge (form recall and form recognition), after which they were interviewed about their perception of the experimental treatment. 
The results of linear mixed effects models showed that typographic enhancement significantly affected (log-transformed) reading times for collocations during the first, enhanced exposure (B = 0.22, p < .001), but not during later, unenhanced exposures. Further, reading times in the sentence-reading task did not show evidence of a processing advantage for target collocations. Results of the delayed posttests showed that, on average, participants recalled 3 out of 24 collocations, and recognized 9 out of 24 collocations. In a mixed effects logistic regression, form recognition scores were found to be significantly higher in the enhanced condition (B = 0.52, p = .002), but the difference was small and inconsistent across learners. The findings will be discussed in the light of usage-based theories of L2 acquisition, in particular with regard to the role of repeated exposure and attention in L2 collocation learning. We will also discuss implications for the pedagogical application of typographic enhancement in L2 reading materials.
Choi, S. (2017). Processing and learning of enhanced English collocations: An eye movement study. Language Teaching Research, 21(3), 403–426. 
Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2020). Learning Single Words vs. Multiword Items. In: Webb, S (ed.) The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies. New York: Routledge, pp. 225–39.
Webb, S., Newton, J., & Chang, A. (2013). Incidental learning of collocation. Language Learning, 63: 91–120.

Compared to foreign language (FL) communication anxiety, relatively little is known about FL reading anxiety (Zhou, 2017). However, FL reading anxiety does exist and it can negatively influence the cognitive abilities of learners during reading (Katzir et al., 2018). Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is an instructional practice combining cooperative learning and reading strategies (Klingner & Vaughn,1999). Previous studies on CSR are often conducted among heterogeneous learning groups and focus on its impact on reading comprehension only. However, research finds that the psychological well-being and self-esteem of low-performing students might suffer during cooperation with more capable peers and this could increase their anxiety and impede their learning (Dommeyer, 2007). On the other hand, research shows that due to the disparities of skills and knowledge repertoire between individuals, even those less competent learners are able to provide scaffolding to each other (Lantolf, 2000). It is therefore speculated that CSR can be applied to EFL lower achievers and will benefit them. However, no research on CSR has been carried out among homogeneous groups of EFL struggling readers to investigate its impact on FL reading anxiety and reading comprehension.
This study was guided by three research questions: Does CSR improve English reading comprehension of EFL lower attainers? What is the impact of CSR on the self-reported EFL reading anxiety of struggling readers? How does the self-reported reading anxiety level correlate with FL reading comprehension? Informed by the modified engagement model of reading development (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000), a seven-week intervention of CSR was implemented in an intact class of 30 low-performing EFL students in a Chinese high school. For comparison, a control group was created. Here, the researcher taught the same reading passages as received by the CSR group but in a traditional teacher-centred way by teaching new vocabularies and translating complex sentences before having students work on reading questions independently. Each group completed five sessions per week, each lasting 45 minutes. Mixed methods including Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (Saito et al., 1999), reading tests, and semi-structured interviews were used to investigate the efficacy of CSR on FL reading anxiety and reading comprehension. Results indicated no significant difference in reading comprehension between the groups at posttest. However, the reading anxiety level of CSR group decreased significantly compared with that of control group. In addition, reading test results were found to be negatively correlated with FL reading anxiety levels. The group interview conducted among treatment group participants indicated that CSR was useful in enhancing reading engagement. Inferences about the interaction between reduced reading anxiety, improved reading engagement and reading comprehension were made. Implications for EFL teaching will be discussed.
Katzir, T., Kim, Y.-S. G., & Dotan, S. (2018). Reading self-concept and reading anxiety in second grade children: The roles of word reading, emergent literacy skills, working memory and gender. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01180
Zhou, J. (2017). Foreign language reading anxiety in a Chinese as a foreign language context.Reading in a Foreign Language, 29 (1), 155–173