Session 1G

In the literature on the relationship between bilingualism and creativity there is a debate as to whether it is the daily use of two languages or the exposure to other cultures that furthers creativity. On the one hand, bilinguals could be more creative because switching between two languages furthers mental flexibility or innovative capacity (Kharkhurin & Li, 2015). On the other hand, experience with two cultures may have an impact on the cognitive functioning of bilinguals (Kharkhurin, 2005).
This study applies a novel approach to shed light on the three-way relationship between creativity, bilingualism and biculturalism: we keep the languages constant but vary the sociocultural background of the participants. 30 Turkey-born immigrants to the UK (UKT), 30 Cyprus-born immigrants to the UK (UKC) and 40 Cyprus-based bilinguals (CBB) completed the Abbreviated Torrance Task of Creativity (ATTA, Goff, 2002), as well as the Multicultural Identity Styles Scales (Ward et al., 2018), which contains a Hybrid Identity Scale (HIS) and an Alternating Identity Scale (AIS). The Language History Questionnaire (Li et al., 2014) was used to measure self-reported language mixing (MixTot). We found a positive correlation between the HIS and the total creativity score from the ATTA (r = .295, p -.003) but no correlation with the AIS, and a negative correlation between MixTot and creativity (r = -.369, p< .001). We subsequently used Generalised Additive Models (GAMs), a method allowing for modelling of non-linear relationships, which are common in complex behavioural data (Wood, 2017). We fitted GAMs with the total creativity score as the dependent variable, and HIS, MixTot, Group and age as predictors. We found a main effect of the HIS as well as an interaction between HIS and Group (for all three groups). There was no main effect for MixTot, nor one for age, but an interaction between MixTot and Group for the UKT and the CBB groups only. The GAM-specific fit assessment revealed that the model was well-fitted, and the explained variance was .656 (Adjusted R-squared).
Overall, our results support the view that bilingual language use is related to creativity, though not always in ways assumed in the literature. Substantial evidence was found for the view that multicultural identity impacts creativity and is likely to mediate the effect of language mixing.
References
Goff, K. (2002). Abbreviated Torrance test for adults: Manual: Scholastic Testing Service Bensenville, IL.
Kharkhurin, A. V. (2005). On the possible relationships between bilingualism, biculturalism and creativity: A cognitive perspective. City University of New York.
Kharkhurin, A. V., & Li, W. (2015). The role of code-switching in bilingual creativity. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18(2), 153-169. 
Li, P. et al. (2014). Language history questionnaire (LHQ 2.0): A new dynamic web-based research tool. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(3), 673-680. 
Ward, C., et al. (2018). Hybrid and Alternating Identity Styles as Strategies for Managing Multicultural Identities. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 49(9), 1402-1439. 
Wood, S. N. (2017). Generalized additive models: an introduction with R. CRC press.

According to the cognitive advantage hypothesis, multilingualism is related to higher outcomes on a wide range of different cognitive abilities (e.g., Antoniou, 2019). These range from basic abilities such as executive functions and working memory to more complex ones such as perspective taking, divergent and creative thinking, and theory of mind. Because cognition is a condition for (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) or basis of (Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988) emotion, emotional competences are at least partly intertwined with cognitive competences. Thus, if a cognitive advantage is assumed, it is plausible that multilingualism could be related to an emotional advantage, as well. So far, only one study reports an advantage for multilinguals in emotional competencies when compared to monolinguals. Specifically, bilinguals showed higher scores for emotional intelligence than the monolingual control group (Alqarni & Dewaele, 2018).
To further investigate this relationship, using a cross-sectional online survey, we tested whether degree of multilingualism (DM) predicts emotional granularity (i.e., the ability to experience emotions in a differentiated way; EG), emotional intelligence (i.e., overall emotional competency; EI), and emotion regulation repertoire (i.e., the ability to flexibly up- and downregulate own facial expressions; ER repertoire). EG, EI, ER repertoire and DM were assessed in 85 adults, mostly born in Germany, who have attained varying levels of language proficiency (only one L2 learned in school, up to several L2s). In three regression analyses, we tested whether DM predicted EG, EI and ER repertoire. Robust standard errors (HC4) were used to correct for missing homoscedasticity and normality of the data. EG and ER repertoire were significantly predicted by DM; however, EI was not significantly predicted by DM. Results of our study provide the first indication of a possible multilingual advantage regarding some emotional competencies, such as EG and ER repertoire, but not regarding the overall competency of EI.
To explain possible mechanisms that might constitute an emotional advantage, a more complex theoretical model needs to be developed and tested. To that end, three aspects require detailed examination. First, it needs to be explored which aspects of multilingualism, such as linguistic heterogeneity or cultural heterogeneity, contribute to the explanation of emotional competencies. Second, the explanatory value of possible mediator variables, such as executive functioning or divergent thinking, needs to be investigated. Finally, alternative causal explanations must be ruled out to assume a causal relationship between multilingualism and emotion.



Antoniou, M. (2019). The advantages of bilingualism debate. Annual Review of Linguistics, 5, 395–415.
Alqarni, N., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2018). A bilingual emotional advantage? An investigation into the effects of psychological factors in emotion perception in Arabic and in English of Arabic-English bilinguals and Arabic/English monolinguals. International Journal of Bilingualism, 24, 141–158.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge University Press.

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) programmes are often associated with higher levels of L2 motivation than programmes including only English as a Foreign Language (EFL) lessons (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2009). However, most motivation-based studies have focussed on adults and secondary school settings (Mearns, 2015; Sylvén & Thompson, 2015), whilst findings from research analysing the L2 motivation of children in school contexts remain scarce and inconclusive. To shed light on this issue, this study examines the motivation towards the foreign language (English) of 895 primary school children (aged 11-12) divided into three groups based on the type (CLIL or non-CLIL) and intensity (number of lessons per week) of exposure to English: a non-CLIL group (n=289) with pupils receiving five EFL lessons, a low-CLIL group (n=152) with pupils receiving five EFL and two CLIL lessons, and a high-CLIL group (n=454) with pupils receiving five EFL and seven CLIL lessons. The study uses an online questionnaire present in recent motivation-based research with YLs (Pladevall-Ballester, 2018) and is framed within the threefold L2 Motivational Self System framework propounded by Dörnyei (2005, 2009), comprising the "ideal L2 self" (F1) , the "ought-to L2 self" (F2) and the "L2 learning experience" (F3). The results indicate that overall values in the three measured dimensions of motivation were high for the three groups. However, the data also revealed that the high-CLIL group were significantly more motivated in the "ought-to L2 self" (F2) and the "L2 learning experience" (F3) dimensions of motivation than both the non-CLIL and low-CLIL groups, which clustered with lower values. The "L2 learning experience" (F3) was also confirmed as the factor with the greatest differences between groups. In light of these results, the study advocates the implementation of high-CLIL programmes to boost learners' motivation but also warns about the potential negative effects of low-CLIL programmes on pupils' self-esteem as FL learners. 

Keywords
Children, CLIL, EFL, intensity, L2 motivation

References
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei, & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self  (pp. 92-142). Multilingual Matters.
Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. M. (2009). Language attitudes in CLIL and traditional EFL classes. International CLIL Research Journal,1(2), 4-17.
Mearns, T. (2015). Chicken, Egg or a Bit of Both? Motivation in 
 Bilingual Education (TTO) in the Netherlands. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Aberdeen, UK, and Universiteit Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Pladevall-Ballester, E. (2018). A longitudinal study of primary school EFL learning motivation in CLIL and non-CLIL settings. Language Teaching Research,23, 765-786.
Sylvén, L.K., & Thompson, A. S. (2015). Language learning motivation and CLIL: Is there a connection? Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education,3, 28-50.