Session 4A

Writing skills have gained in significance for young learners over the past decades with the real-life use of digital technologies and a more text-based society. Written communication, often considered a secondary skill, relies on correct spelling to encode inner speech and to convey intended meaning to the reader. As a central, lower-level component of the writing process, spelling requires precise recall and production of orthographic representation. Conversely, continued cognitive overload while spelling can have detrimental effects on the subsequent development of writing skills (Graham et al., 1997; Kellogg, 2008). This poses increasing challenges for young L2 learners in instructed settings where L2 spelling acquisition remains a neglected skill. In general, predictors for L2 literacy acquisition are executive functions, lexical access and phonological awareness; however, their role in spelling has been under-researched (Harrison et al., 2016; Czapka et al., 2019). Empirical findings on the effects of language-related and cognitive predictors of L2 spelling are scarce and findings for young learners' L2 spelling ability are mixed. 

The present study investigates the effects of cognitive and linguistic factors on young learners' L2 spelling acquisition. More specifically, our aim was to examine correlations between L2 spelling acquisition and learners' working memory, phonological short-term memory, phonological awareness, non-verbal intelligence, L2 lexical/grammar knowledge and L2 reading comprehension. Furthermore, we explored the question which cognitive and linguistic variables best predict young learners' L2 spelling skills. Participants (N=75) were grade 3 and grade 4 pupils at two primary schools in Lower Saxony, Germany. Learners completed six measures of cognitive and linguistic skills, one L2 reading comprehension test, and a real word and pseudoword spelling test to explore L2 spelling proficiency. 

Correlations and multiple regression analyses were conducted in order to identify major component skills and knowledge bases needed for L2 spelling acquisition. In our talk, we will discuss why certain variables might affect learners' L2 spelling skills and to what extent they might explain spelling variance. Based on our findings, we will also discuss recommendations regarding teaching practices that can assist in developing learners' L2 spelling ability.



References: 

Czapka, S., Klassert, A., & Festman, J. (2019). Executive functions and language: Their differential influence on mono-vs. multilingual spelling in primary school. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 97.

Graham, S., Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., & Whitaker, D. (1997). Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 170-182.

Harrison, G. L., Goegan, L. D., Jalbert, R., McManus, K., Sinclair, K., & Spurling, J. (2016). Predictors of spelling and writing skills in first- and second-language learners. Reading and Writing, 29(1), 69-89.

Kellogg, R.T. (2008). Training writing skills: A cognitive developmental perspective. Journal of Writing Research, 1(1), 1-26.

Language learning aptitude is assumed to explain a relatively large amount of the variance in the acquisition rate and ultimate L2 level reached by adult second language learners. In SLA, the quality of studies on language aptitude crucially depends on the availability of valid research instruments. The most popular language aptitude test during the past decade has been the LLAMA test suite (Meara, 2005), which has figured in over 50 published studies from which conclusions have been made about phenomena related to language aptitude. A recent paper (Bokander & Bylund, 2020) found several problematic issues pertaining to the internal validity of the LLAMA, such as low reliability of test scores, but the authors did not address external validity, that is, the ability of an aptitude test to predict learning outcomes. No large-scale external validation study of the LLAMA has hitherto been undertaken, but an alternative way of evaluating the external validity of an aptitude test is to systematically examine its correlations with learning outcomes. This presentation reports from a systematic review of previously published correlations between LLAMA and various L2 tasks (e.g., grammaticality judgements, pronunciation, or general L2 proficiency). The aim is to gauge the overall effectiveness of the LLAMA in producing significant correlations with L2 outcomes. 
Empirical original studies were obtained via popular scientific databases and were included in the review if they used the full LLAMA suite or a subset thereof, and if they reported correlation coefficients with L2 outcomes. L2 tasks were coded according to the linguistic features that were in focus into four categories: general L2 ability; grammar; vocabulary; and phonology/pronunciation. The correlation coefficients were dichotomously coded as statistically significant or non-significant, depending on how they had been reported in the original studies. In total, 36 studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. From them, 460 correlations were obtained based on scores from 2286 participants. 
The systematic review reveals that only about 20% of the correlations between LLAMA tasks and L2 learning outcomes were reported as statistically significant, potentially allowing them to be interpreted as non-random and attributed with psychological meaning. However, the highest correlations were consistently found in small samples, in which sampling error may be large. Several studies, often those with larger sample sizes, reported near zero correlations with outcomes, and this in cases where positive associations between aptitude and L2 outcomes would be theoretically expected. The analysis thus suggests that some findings based on correlations with LLAMA scores may be unduly influenced by measurement error. A recommendation for future research is using the full LLAMA suite in large-sample correlational designs with a variety of L2 outcomes, in order to evaluate the external validity of the LLAMA. In conclusion, there is a need for caution when researchers base their findings on correlations with LLAMA because too little is yet known about its external validity. 


References
Bokander, L., & Bylund, E. (2020). Probing the internal validity of the LLAMA language aptitude tests. Language Learning, 70(1), 11–47.
Meara, P. (2005). The LLAMA language aptitude tests. Lognostics.

Recent developments in language learning aptitude research have generated renewed interest in the topic, especially with regard to the distinction between aptitude for explicit and implicit learning (Granena, 2020; Li & DeKeyser, 2021). While widely-used measures of aptitude capture primarily explicit aptitude in the sense of associative memory, phonetic coding and language-analytic ability, recent work has focused on the validation of measures of implicit aptitude, conceptualised as sensitivity to the recency, frequency and conditional probability of input stimuli. This work is complemented by ongoing revisions to the LLAMA aptitude test battery. To date, empirical studies of aptitude have relied primarily on data from young adults and/or adolescents (Li, 2015, 2016), with older adults still very much under-represented. This sits uneasily with rising interest in older adults' language learning (Cox, 2017, 2019; Kliesch & Pfenninger, 2021; Pfenninger & Polz, 2018), as researchers increasingly acknowledge the importance of understanding older learners' abilities and needs in the face of an ageing population and the potential benefits of cognitive activity, including language learning, for healthy ageing. 
In a first attempt to assess the suitability of existing aptitude measures for older adults and to establish the relationship between components of aptitude for explicit and implicit learning in such a population, 64 healthy volunteers aged 61-79 completed the LLAMA (Meara, 2005; Rogers et al., 2017) and a probabilistic serial reaction time task (SRT; Kaufman et al., 2010). Based on questionnaire data, we examined to what extent participants' occupational status, chronological age, level of multilingualism, emotional state, self-concept and leisure activities were associated with their performance on the aptitude measures. 
The LLAMA proved challenging for our sample, with all sub-test means well below 50%. The challenge of the SRT was even greater, since only 40 participants managed to complete the task, although this group did demonstrate a significant learning effect. In line with recent theorising, a factor analysis supported the hypothesised distinction between implicit aptitude as measured by LLAMA-D and SRT, and explicit aptitude as measured by the other LLAMA sub-tests. When chronological age was controlled for, retired participants achieved significantly lower scores on LLAMA-D and showed a trend towards less learning on the SRT compared with participants who were still working. Correlation analyses including age, level of multilingualism, emotional state and self-concept indicated an advantage for younger participants within the sample on sub-tests of explicit aptitude, higher LLAMA-D scores for participants with a positive view of their own memory and cognition, and better SRT performance by participants with more extensive prior language learning experience. 
We will discuss possible interpretations of these results with reference to existing aptitude research with younger samples as well as recent studies specifically concerned with additional language learning in older adults. We will consider the theoretical and practical implications of a possible shift that may occur in healthy ageing with regard to the relative weight and direction of influence of factors known to interact with linguistic ability, knowledge and learning.