Poster session 2

The present study examines second language (L2) acquisition of Chinese long distance (LD) reflexive by Japanese-speaking learners. Both Chinese and Japanese have an LD reflexive, ziji 'self' and zibun 'self,' respectively, that can be coreferential with a non-local antecedent. It has been claimed that there are two types of LD antecedents that can be coreferential with zibun (e.g., Oshima, 2007; Kishida, 2011); one is an empathic antecedent, which is a participant in a sentence that the speaker empathizes with the most (Kuno & Kuburaki, 1977), and the other is a logophoric antecedent, which is an individual "whose speech, thoughts, feelings, or general state of consciousness are reported" (Clements, 1975, p. 141). For zibun, these two types of LD antecedents differ as only the former, not the latter, induces the so-called blocking effect. As shown in (1), coreference between a reflexive and an empathic LD antecedent is "blocked" by the presence of the first-person pronoun watasi 'I', while in (2), the same intervener does not block dependency between a logophoric LD antecedent and zibun. Chinese reflexive ziji, in contrast, is subject to the blocking effect in both conditions; therefore, in equivalent sentences in both (1) and (2) in Chinese, ziji cannot be coreferential with a LD antecedent, Mary (e.g., Huang et al., 1984; Huang & Liu, 2001). 
(1) Empathic condition
Maryi-ga [watasij-ga kyoositu-de zibun *i/j -o hometa atode] kaetta.
Mary-Nom I-Nom classroom-at self-Acc praised after went.home
'Mary went home after I praised her in a classroom.'
(2) Logophoric condition
Maryi-ga [watasij-ga kittin-de zibun i/j  -o semeta-to] itta.
Mary- Nom I-Nom kitchen-at self- Acc criticized-Comp said
'Mary said that I criticized her in the kitchen.'
A truth-value judgment task was conducted to examine the blocking effect in Chinese by Japanese-speaking learners. Even though our data collection from L2 learners is still on-going, preliminary results showed that, in the empathic and logophoric conditions, Chinese native speakers (n = 28) allowed LD coreference of ziji at 20.5% and 23.2%, respectively, and Japanese-speaking learners (n = 7) at 21.4% and 25.0%, respectively, when an intervening noun was a first-person pronoun. In contrast, when an intervening noun was a third-person noun, the native control group allowed LD coreference at 66.0% and 63.3% and the L2 group at 53.6% and 57.1% respectively. The results from the control group and the L2 group were strikingly similar, which suggests that Japanese-speaking learners, like native speakers of Chinese, exhibit the blocking effect for both empathic and logophoric LD antecedents. The results will be discussed in terms of the poverty of stimulus problem in L2 acquisition, as neither learners' L1 nor L2 input could potentially lead to the knowledge that LD coreference between a logophoric LD antecedent and ziji is impossible.

Music and language both employ rhythm, and previous research has shown that the prior presentation of musical rhythm can facilitate language processing at various levels, including syntax, semantics, and phonology (rhythmic priming). This phenomenon has been explained by dynamic attending theory, by which a human's attention can be dynamically modulated through periodic rhythm and then directed toward predictable strong metrical positions, which assists language processing (Large & Jones, 1999). 
Research on first-language phonological processing has revealed the benefits of musical rhythmic priming on perception and production improvement (e.g., Cason et al., 2015). Regarding second language (L2), the practice of rhythm-based explicit teaching (e.g., making gestures with speech, clapping hands) has been found to benefit L2 pronunciation regarding the overall accentedness of the pronunciation as well as rhythm for learners (e.g., Gluhareva & Prieto, 2017). However, there is still little understanding of whether metrical rhythm can enhance pronunciation properties beyond the rhythmic aspect. Because rhythmic expectation may enable learners to process metrical aspects of the incoming language more efficiently, it may allow them to allocate cognitive resources to processing phonological information other than rhythm. 
Our recent research has demonstrated that a brief practice with rhythmic beats can improve aspects of English pronunciation, such as speech rate and pitch range in adult Japanese learners of English (Sugiura & Hori, 2020). Although there seems to be potential for rhythmic expectation to facilitate L2 sounds other than rhythm, further experimental evidence with different sounds is necessary to confirm our hypothesis. The delayed effect should also be investigated as implicit learning is said to characteristically have long-term effects.
The present study examines the effect of musical beats on pronunciation enhancement (speech rate, pitch range, rising and falling intonation, rhythm and sound changes) in adult Japanese learners of English. In a short training session with a pre-, immediate- and delayed post-test design, twenty participants either repeated auditorily presented sentences (non-rhythmic condition) or repeated musical rhythms, followed by repeating auditorily presented sentences (rhythmic condition). Twenty sentences were randomly repeated four times each. In the tests, the participants' oral production was elicited using the immediate repetition of twenty short sentences, which were different from those used in the training session. These sentences were then acoustically analyzed. The results showed that the group in the rhythmic condition showed more improvement in their suprasegmental sounds than the other group. Facilitation of L2 phonological processing by implicit learning with metrical rhythm and implicit learning of L2 pronunciation are also discussed. 
 
References
Cason, N., Hidalgo, C., Isoard, F., Roman, S., & Schön, D. (2015). Rhythmic priming enhances speech production abilities: Evidence from prelingually deaf children. Neuropsychology, 29(1), 102.
Gluhareva, D., & Prieto, P. (2017). Training with rhythmic beat gestures benefits L2 pronunciation in discourse-demanding situations. Language Teaching Research, 21(5), 609-631.
Large, E.W., & Jones, M.R. (1999). The dynamics of attending: How people track time-varying events. Psychological Review, 106, 119–159.
Sugiura K., & Hori, T. (2020). How repeating rhythmic beats enhance L2 prosody. JACET Chubu Journal, 18, 33-54.

It is commonly admitted that speakers from different L1s are likely to have different ways of retelling events in a second language. Furthermore, conceptualisation and linguistic encoding differences are partly imputable to the extent to which semantic properties are grammaticalized in L1s (eg. Papafragou et al., 2008; Thierry, 2016; von Stutterheim et al., 2017). However, research on event construal has mostly focused on motion events or temporo-aspectual expression in single events and less on the changing weight of the L1 in the developmental conceptualisation process. This study aims at investigating another core pattern of information selection and encoding in Syrian Arabic (SAL1), French L1 (FrL1) and French L2 (FrL2) narratives, namely in retelling scenes in which an agent causes an object to pass into the possession of an animate receiver like throwing trash on someone (1) :
(1) ka:n fi: rajul `am yimši: bišša:ri' wu-s-sitt min al-na:fiza ramat al quma:ma
There was a man walking on the street and the lady threw trash out of the window
All languages have ditransitive verbs (throw) or 3-argument constructions to describe this type of scene. Furthermore, passive (2) or causative constructions are possible alternatives to report the same events. 
(2) en premier y a Charlie qui s'est pris tous les gravats sur lui
Narratives (in SAL1 and FrL2) were elicited with 29 Syrian learners (grouped according to C-Test scores in beginner and intermediate groups) and 15 FrL1 speakers (FrL1 narratives) using a silent movie extract showing a coherent story involving 5 visible protagonists. Focusing on the way entities are selected and involved in the reported events and comparing their semantic role in narratives' main structure, we aimed at investigating differences between FrL1 and SAL1, the extent to which construction preferences in FrL2 were driven by learners' L1, and whether those preferences were affected by learners' L2 proficiency. 
Our results show different selection choices in FrL1 and SAL1 regarding entities and events involved in the storyline especially in ditransitive constructions. FrL1 speakers typically maintain reference to the main protagonist as agent or patient to retell what happens to him (2) while SAL1 speakers pay attention to several agentive entities – sometimes invisible in the stimulus - to build the main structure in FrL2 (3) and in SAL1 (1) making the protagonist as a recipient. 
(3) première chose y a quelqu'un elle met la poubelle sur la tête de Chaplin
In our poster we will present the differences in the perspective taken on events (agentive and passive) in SAL1, FrL1 and FrL2 and discuss implications for research into event and narrative construal.


Papafragou, A., Hulbert, J., & Trueswell, J. (2008). Does language guide event perception ? Evidence from eye movements. Cognition, 108, 155‑184.
Thierry, G. (2016). Neurolinguistic relativity : How language flexes human perception and cognition. Language Learning, 66(3), 690‑713.
von Stutterheim, C., Bouhaous, A., & Carroll, M. (2017). From time to space : The impact of aspectual categories on the construal of motion events : The case of Tunisian Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. Linguistics, 55(1), 207‑249.

Researchers in applied linguistics have criticized the field's emphasis on monolingual targets because, for example, this focus highlights learners' shortcomings and does not accurately reflect the nature of bilingualism. Studies relying on such benchmarks often report assessments of accuracy that encompass comparisons between learners and monolinguals. Cook and Wei (2016), The Douglas Fir Group (2016), Ortega (2014), inter alia, have argued for reform concerning the role of monolingual targets in applied linguistics. In response to these concerns, Gudmestad, Edmonds, and Metzger (2021) sought to move beyond monolingual baselines in the examination of grammatical gender marking in noun-modifier pairs by conducting an analysis of gender marking in additional-language Spanish that centered on explaining learners' use of modifier gender, rather than learners' errors. While this analysis enabled them to explain how patterns of use of modifier gender changed longitudinally, it did not permit observations about potential improvement in gender marking. Thus, an avenue for future research is to identify ways in which analyses of gender marking not only refrain from assessments of accuracy but also allow researchers to observe language gains. In the current study, we propose that one way to achieve this goal is to operationalize gains in competence as consistency, with improvement in gender marking being operationalized as change from variable to consistent use of a single modifier gender with a given noun. 
The Spanish data analyzed come from LANGSNAP (http://langsnap.soton.ac.uk/), a longitudinal corpus that followed learners over 21 months, including a stay abroad. We analyzed three tasks for 21 participants before going abroad, one year later, and eight months after returning to England. We coded every possibility for gender marking when a noun was modified by a determiner or adjective (K = 16,357). We conducted two analyses. First, we examined consistency in marking the same modifier gender on nouns that learners produced more than one time; we analyzed all participants quantitatively, using a regression analysis to identify factors that impact consistency in gender marking. Second, we examined consistency within the noun-modifier relationship when a single noun was modified by more than one modifier (e.g., determiner+noun+adjective). For this analysis, we focused on the four learners who produced the greatest number of observations. We conclude by discussing ways in which the current study contributes to efforts to reform applied linguistics both methodologically and conceptually and the challenges that come with efforts to move the field away from monolingual benchmarks.


Cook, V., & Wei, L. (Eds.). (2016). The Cambridge handbook of linguistic multi-competence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
The Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world. The Modern Language Journal, 100, 19-47.
Gudmestad, A., Edmonds, A., & Metzger, T. (2021). Moving beyond the native-speaker bias in the analysis of variable gender marking. Frontiers in Communication, 6, 165.
Ortega, L. (2014). Ways forward for a bi/multilingual turn in SLA. In S. May (Ed.), The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL, and bilingual education (pp. 32-53). New York: Routledge.

The position of English as a lingua franca in academia means that mastery of second language skills is a prerequisite for most non-native English speakers in order to succeed in higher education. Readings required for study tend to be in English even in countries where it is not the majority or official language. Research has demonstrated that even people who are highly proficient in their second language tend to read more slowly in L2 than in L1 (e.g. Shaw & McMillion, 2011). This means that non-native English-speaking university students around the world who need to read English language textbooks and articles, either in their home country or while studying abroad, may struggle to read the required amount of information over the course of their studies (Pecorari et al., 2011). However, to our knowledge, no previous study has investigated actual reading speed differences for academic text in L1 vs. L2 users.
This study aimed to investigate reading speed and comprehension on an academic reading task among undergraduate psychology students with different language backgrounds who all read English language textbooks at university. Data was collected from 305 university students from 3 language backgrounds: one group of native English-speakers studying in the UK, and two groups of non-native English-speaking students, one studying in an English-speaking environment (the UK) and one in Norway, where L2 English proficiency is generally found to be very high (Education First, 2022). Participants were asked to read an extract from an unfamiliar academic text and answer a number of comprehension questions. Reading times and comprehension scores were recorded.
Results showed that while all three groups achieved similar mean scores on the comprehension questions, the native English-speaking students read the given text significantly faster than did the Norwegian L2 students. However, there was no significant difference between reading times in the UK-based L1 and L2 speakers. The results indicate that although advanced L2 readers in a non-immersion setting can gain the same comprehension outcome as L1 readers, they may need more time to read and understand academic texts, which can be problematic when this is not considered by the education system. Importantly, the results indicate that the slower reading speed in the Norwegian-based group is not simply a result of their L2 user status or bilingualism, but possibly of their non-immersed context. These findings are important in the discussion surrounding parallel language academic contexts and the expectations placed on students reading in an L2 in such contexts to keep up with the general expectations in the field, which are the same as for students in monolingual university settings. 


Education First. (2022). English Proficiency Index. http://www.ef.no/epi/regions/europe/norway/
Pecorari, D., Shaw, P., Malmström, H., & Irvine, A. (2011). English textbooks in parallel-Language tertiary education. TESOL Quarterly, 45(2), 313-333.
Shaw, P., & McMillion, A. (2011). Components of success in academic reading tasks for Swedish students. Ibérica, 22, 141-162. 

In 1987, Kruse, Pankhurst and Sharwood-Smith published a study that seemed to prove that a free continuous word association test (WAT) was inadequate as a global proficiency measure in L2. Using norms of word association generated from English native speakers to measure degree of "native speaker-likeness" they found that: (i) there was little difference between the performance of a group of learners and a control group of native speakers, (ii) the quantity of responses provided was a poor, but better indicator of proficiency than their native speaker-like quality, and (iii) a retest after two weeks produced unreliable results. In this presentation, I shall report some findings from a constructive replication (WAT 20) of this highly influential study that challenge the above conclusions. Results indicate that this WAT can (i) distinguish between native and non-native speakers and (ii) reliably discriminate L2 Japanese learners of different levels of ability. Further, quality of responses was a better indicator of proficiency than quantity of responses provided. Finally, a test-retest produced reliable results. These findings contradict the findings of the original study and add some weight to the claim that the WAT is a valid tool for measuring L2 ability or the lexical processing ability of learners of English as an L2.


References
Kruse, H., Pankhurst J., & Sharwood-Smith, M. (1987). A Multiple Word Association Probe. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 9 (2), 141-154.

We examine native English speakers' ability to distinguish German vowels both in clear speech and in noise (SNR 8dB and 0dB). In particular, we focus on the front rounded vowels /y/ and /ø/ in relation to the acoustically similar ones of the same vowel height (/i/ & /u/ and /e/ & /o/, respectively), as English speakers have previously been reported to map these onto the category of a back rounded vowel (e.g. Strange et al. 2005). All vowels are further contrasted with /a/ in a control condition. The aim of the study is to discover if a difficulty in perceiving a non-native vowel contrast is equally severe at each noise level or if there might be a perceptual shift so that the distinction between the front vowels that are acoustically more similar to each other (/i/ & /y/ and /e/ & /ø/) than to the back vowels of the same height (/u/ and /o/, respectively) becomes more difficult as the noise level increases. To this end, participants are presented with German- sounding pseudowords with varying vowels in an oddity discrimination task similar to the one in Darcy & Krüger (2012). In DIFFERENT trials, one of the three speakers produces the word with a different vowel than the other two. In SAME trials, all speakers say the same word. Participants are then asked to indicate which speaker said a different word or if there was no difference. Both native English speakers with no prior exposure to German and a control group consisting of native German speakers are being tested. Current results support the previous finding that native English speakers tend to assimilate both round vowels of the same height to the same phoneme category in clear speech (/y/ & /u/, /ø/ & /o/). As the noise level increases, however, the two acoustically closer front vowels of each height category (/i/ & /y/, /e/ & /ø/) pattern together and become less distinctive, but discriminating vowels of the same height becomes more difficult overall. In the noise conditions, the German speakers show a similar yet weaker perceptual shift as the English speakers. However, the contrast with /a/ remained relatively stable for both groups. Results suggest that L1 speakers can tolerate more noise distortion than L2 speakers. Further, performance of English speakers that had learned French and thus had previous exposure to /y/ and /ø/ was better overall than of those English speakers who had not learned French, particularly at the crucial contrasts of /y/ & /u/ and /ø/ & /o/. This suggests that previous exposure to non-native phonemes is an advantage that even holds in adverse listening conditions.
References:
Darcy, Isabelle & Krüger, Franziska (2012). Vowel perception and production in Turkish children acquiring L2 German. Journal of Phonetics 40, 568-581.
Strange, Winifred, Bohn, Ocke-Schwen, Nishi, Kanae & Trent, Sonja A. (2005). Contextual variation in the acoustic and perceptual similarity of North German and American English vowels. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 118, 1751-1762.

It is controversial whether adult L2 learners below native-like proficiency levels are capable of target-like processing of L2 grammar. In this self-paced reading study, we explore whether highly proficient adult L2 learners whose L1 is Croatian converge with native speakers in their online comprehension of null and overt subject pronouns in Italian. We base our predictions on the Position of Antecedent Strategy (PAS), according to which the null pronoun is biased towards the subject antecedent and the overt pronoun towards a non-subject antecedent in intra-sentential contexts in Italian (Carminati, 2002). Croatian null and overt subject pronouns seem to exhibit the same antecedent biases as the Italian ones (AUTHOR, XXXXa). 
Two groups of native speakers (n=48) and L2 learners (n=44) took part in two experiments in which they read 36 complex bi-clausal sentences with null or overt pronouns in the subordinate clause introduced by the adverbial quando ('when'). The pronoun matched either the subject or the object of the main clause, depending on its gender. In one experiment the subordinate clause preceded the main clause giving rise to backward anaphora (e.g. Quando lei/lui/Ø è entrata/-o in ufficio dopo pranzo, Adriana ha salutato Roberto con un grande sorriso, 'When she/he/Ø entered[fem/masc] the office after lunch, Adriana greeted Roberto with a big smile') and in the other it followed the main clause giving rise to forward anaphora (e.g. Roberto/Adriana ha salutato Adriana/Roberto con un grande sorriso quando lui/Ø è entrato in ufficio dopo pranzo, 'Roberto/Adriana greeted Adriana/Roberto with a big smile when he/null entered[masc] the office after lunch'). All sentences were followed by a comprehension question that targeted the pronoun antecedent. Additional 84 sentences were included as fillers.
In both experiments, L2 learners converged with native speakers in their online (and offline) comprehension of the pronouns. More precisely, both groups of speakers had a subject preference for the null pronoun and an object preference for the overt pronoun in backward anaphora, as predicted by the PAS. In forward anaphora, they had an object preference for the overt pronoun (in line with the PAS) and no detectable antecedent preference for the null pronoun (not in line with the PAS, but in line with the results of some previous offline studies). We compare these results with our previous closely related work with English-speaking L2 learners of Italian (whose L1 has only overt pronouns), who linked subject pronouns to the linearly closest antecedent in both types of anaphora; the native speakers showed antecedent preferences consistent with the PAS (AUTHOR, XXXXb, c). Based on this, we conclude that L2 learners are capable of target-like processing of L2 grammar, at least when their L1 does not differ from their L2 as far as the relevant properties are concerned.
References
AUTHOR (XXXXa)
AUTHOR (XXXXb)
AUTHOR (XXXXc)
Carminati, M. N. (2002). The processing of Italian subject pronouns. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

Learning new vocabulary is a challenging task for L2 learners and it is even more difficult for them to retain these new words in the longer term. One suggestion to enhance vocabulary learning and retention is the utilization of digital games. Recently, the use of digital games in L2 has grown in popularity and some empirical research has yielded positive results in terms of the number of learned words and levels of retention following playing digital games (Franciosi, Yagi & Tomoshige, 2016; Miller & Hegelheimer, 2006; Ranalli, 2008). However, more empirical studies are needed to fully understand the potential of these digital games and to implement them in purposive approaches in teaching and learning vocabulary in L2 classroom. This study aims to explore the effectiveness of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games, by comparison with an interactive e-learning platform (Active Presenter). In addition, we focus on the role of pre-teaching vocabulary of target words and learners' perceptions of and experiences with integrating COTS game in the L2 classroom. This study reports findings from an intervention study with 2x2 factorial design among 150 adults Saudi EFL learners. Two different teaching interventions were compared: a COTS game was compared with Active Presenter, and half of each group were taught target words with Quizlet prior to the intervention. A control group received vocabulary teaching through Quizlet only without any gaming or multimedia resources for 60 minutes. Semantic priming and form recognition tasks were conducted to measure vocabulary learning and retention at pretest, immediate post test and delayed post test. At the conference I hope to present findings of the study.   


References   
Franciosi, S. J., Yagi, J., Tomoshige, Y., & Ye, S. (2016). The Effect of a Simple Simulation Game on Long-Term Vocabulary Retention. CALICO Journal, 33(3). 
Miller, M., & Hegelheimer, V. (2006). The SIMs meet ESL: Incorporating authentic computer simulation games into the language classroom. Interactive Technology & Smart Education, 4, 311–328. 
Ranalli, J. (2008). Learning English with The Sims: exploiting authentic computer simulation games for L2 learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(5), 441-455. doi:10.1080/09588220802447859