Session 2A

The number of studies focusing on the use of subtitles (used for all on-screen text) to learn a foreign language has surged in the past decade, mainly illustrating the effects of subtitles on vocabulary acquisition (Peters & Webb, 2018) and listening comprehension (Gernsbacher, 2015), although other aspects of language learning have also been studied (see meta-review by Montero Perez, 2022). However, little is known about how, when and why learners view video materials the way that they do, and whether viewing strategies can be taught. The present study aims to fill this gap.
The first study seeks to gain insight into the viewing behavior of expert foreign language learners (EFFLs) when viewing subtitled material with the intention of learning the foreign language. EFFLs are those learners that employ (meta-cognitive) strategies effectively when learning a language (Rubin, 2005), and are thus most likely to show effective viewing behavior, maximizing their learning. Eye-tracking and stimulated recall is used to illustrate how EFFLs view narrative TV (e.g. which words do they focus on, and when). In the retro-inspective interview, participants view their own eye-tracking recordings, inviting them to explain their cognitive processes during the trial. In the data-analysis, we will analyze differences and similarities between observed viewing behaviors, and describe potential other viewing behavior as noted during the interview.
The second study will analyze the viewing behavior of secondary school language learners and its effectiveness on their language learning, using the results from the first study. Participants are similarly asked to watch narrative TV while their eyes are tracked. Both a vocabulary pre-test and post-test, and a listening comprehension post-test will reveal which viewing behavior is most effective. In addition, the participants' vocabulary size will be measured as it has been illustrated to predict vocabulary learning gains (Peters & Webb, 2018).
In the third study, the viewing strategies as illustrated by the first and second study will be used to create an intervention, aiming to teach language learners how to use these viewing strategies, even when watching audiovisual material in an informal setting. Through this intervention, we will analyze if effective viewing strategies can be taught, if students change their viewing behavior, and what the effects are on their language learning during the period of implementation.
This study is still in its explorative stage and, currently, participants are invited to carry out stimulated recall for study one.


Gernsbacher, M. A. (2015). Video Captions Benefit Everyone. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9. https://doi.org/ 0.1177/2372732215602130
Montero Perez, M. (2022). Second or foreign language learning through watching audio-visual input and the role of on-screen text. Language Teaching, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444821000501
Peters, E., & Webb, S. (2018). Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition through Viewing L2 Televisionand Factors that Affect Learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 551–577. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000407
Rubin, J. (2005). The expert language learner: A review of good language learner studies and learner strategies. In K. Johnson (Ed.), Expertise in second language learning and teaching (pp. 37-63). Palgrave Macmillan, London.

The overarching aim of this mixed-methods, quasi-experimental study is to examine the extent to which a US-established professional development intervention, known as the Enduring Principles of Learning, can influence teaching practice and subsequently improve primary-aged multilingual learners' English proficiency. This paper presents my ongoing PhD study, which aims to evaluate how far this intervention improved outcomes for ~120 pupils (aged 5-6) and ~120 pupils (aged 8-9) across 4 primary schools in South East England, using pre- and post-tests developed specifically for this study.
The study measured learners' English proficiency in speaking, listening, reading, writing through tests largely based upon World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) materials. The latter are used by practitioners worldwide to assess multilingual pupils' English proficiency. This presentation seeks to discuss to what extent such tools can accurately capture an individuals' language proficiency and as such, what considerations should be made when approaching the data analysis stage of this study. This dialogue would help inform the discussion chapter of my thesis.
The assessment of multilingual pupils' English language proficiency has been primarily considered within the context of high-stakes testing environments impacting individuals' future prospects and potentially influencing national-level policy decisions (Harsch & Hartig, 2015; Llosa, 2011). This presentation therefore aims to contribute to the more limited discourse regarding teacher-friendly testing materials that support the assessment of young multilingual learners' English proficiency. However, the presentation also highlights the tension between this goal and the need for rigour in producing accurate data that can be relied upon in tracking pupils' L2 development. Such issues are particularly pertinent in England where there is no statutory framework to assess pupils' English proficiency and those that exist are widely varied and differently interpreted (Evans et al., 2016). As such this timely research will also broadly contribute to professional knowledge and understanding of how teachers' practice can support multilingual learners' progression in English proficiency.
Questions for discussants:
What considerations, if any, should be made when interpreting multilingual pupils' English language proficiency?In the pursuit of accurately assessing primary-aged pupils' second language and literacy development, what are the implications of balancing rigorous tools with practical, teacher-friendly use? References
Amos, M., Cameron, C., Louguit, M., Kenyon, D., MacGregor, D., Maddy, A., Merow, K., Renn, J., Sweet, S., Yanosky, T., Yen, S. J., & Yu, X. (2014). Technical report: Development and field test of WIDA Model, Grades 6-8 and 9-12. https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/MODEL-tech-report-grades6to12-2012.pdf
Evans, M., Jones, N., Leung, C., & Yongcan, L. (2016). EAL Assessment and Evaluation Framework. https://www.bell-foundation.org.uk/assets/Documents/GuidingPrinciplesofEALAssessment.pdf?1454412088
Harsch, C., & Hartig, J. (2015). What are we aligning tests to when we report test alignment to the CEFR? Language Assessment Quarterly, 12(4), 333–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2015.1092545
Llosa, L. (2011). Standards-based classroom assessments of English proficiency: A review of issues, current developments, and future directions for research. Language Testing, 28(3), 367–382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532211404188

The use of English has been gaining ground in numerous educational contexts where another language was previously used (Gabriëls & Wilkinson, 2021). At university, students are frequently expected to engage with English texts even though the official medium of instruction is the local language. This shift toward English has resulted in new challenges for students, particularly for students who do not have the proficiency required to read English-language publications (Cenoz, 2012). Previous research on academic reading in higher education has primarily focused on the faculty perspective (Gorzycki et al., 2020). In this paper, I illustrate the issue through the Swedish case by discussing the transition from upper secondary school to university, with a particular focus on first-year university students' experiences with academic texts in English in Swedish-medium instruction programmes. The ability to comprehend academic texts is one of the most important skills that university students who speak English as a second or foreign language need to acquire (Dreyer & Nel, 2003), but previous research has showed Swedish students understand less when the textbook is in English (Pecorari et al., 2011). The potential impact on student retention and academic success means there is a need for more attention to be paid to students' experiences with reading in higher education. This paper aims to remediate this issue by providing insights into students' perceptions and attitudes of English academic texts through a sequential explanatory design involving questionnaires and follow-up interviews. Results show that more than half of university students express negative attitudes toward reading in English and perceive reading in English to be considerably more difficult and time-consuming than reading in Swedish. Universities take it for granted that students have the ability to read academic texts in English without any support (Arnbjörnsdóttir, 2018), but I will argue that students' negative attitudes and self-reported challenges are related to a lack of preparation for reading academic English in upper secondary school. 


References
Arnbjörnsdóttir, B. (2018). Using English at university. In B. Arnbjörnsdóttir & H. 
Ingvarsdóttir (Eds.), Language development across the life span: The impact of 
English on education and work in Iceland (pp. 143-162). Springer.
Cenoz, J. (2012). Bilingual educational policy in higher education in the Basque Country. 
Language, Culture and Curriculum, 25, 41-55.
Dreyer, C., & Nel, C. (2003). Teaching reading strategies and reading comprehension within 
a technology-enhanced learning environment. System, 31(3), 349–365. 
Gabriëls, R., & Wilkinson, R. (2021). Two types of reflections about English as a medium of 
instruction. European Journal of Language Policy, 13(2), 161-180.
Gorzycki, M., Desa, G., Howard, P. J., & Allen, D. D. (2020). "Reading Is Important," but "I 
Don't Read": Undergraduates' Experiences With Academic Reading. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 63, 499-508.
Pecorari, D., Shaw, P., Malmström, H., & Irvine, A. (2011). English textbooks in parallel 
language tertiary education. TESOL Quarterly, 45(2), 313-333.