Poster session 1

In light of the decreasing number of language students in Flemish higher education (Paelinck, 2017) and the substantial influence of motivation on language learning (Dörnyei, 1994), the aim of this study is to examine the motivations of Flemish students in the final stage of secondary education to learn German (n = 1534) and English (n = 648). In an online survey based on Kissau et al. (2019), students were able to indicate their motivation, which was divided into nine subtopics including course evaluation and self-efficacy, on a five-point Likert scale. Through quantitative analyses such as analyses of variance and Welch tests, the study seeks to compare the motivations for both languages to one another, as well as study how gender, socioeconomic status, and education type influence motivation. Moreover, student answers to open questions give further insights into the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on language learning motivation and the disparity between German and English motivation. The study has found that students were less motivated to learn German than they were to learn English. A difference in motivation was also found across gender: while female students had a greater desire to learn German, male students were more confident in their foreign language abilities. Further findings will be of particular interest to foreign language teachers, policymakers, and researchers.


Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273–284.
Kissau, S., Wang, C., Rodgers, M., Haudeck, H., & Biebricher, C. (2019). The motivational profile of adolescent foreign language learners: An international comparison. International Journal of Language Studies, 13(1), 19–40.
Paelinck, G. (2017, January). Hogescholen winnen aan populariteit ten opzichte van universiteiten. VRT NWS. https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2017/01/19/hogescholen_winnenaanpopulariteittenopzichtevanuniversiteiten-1-2869144/

Increasing attention has been given to the incorporation of mobile technology for second language (L2) learning and teaching context. In respect of measuring learners' readiness to some extent, this study investigates the effect of Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) on both motivation (learning attitude) and development (learning outcome) in adult Korean undergraduates learning English as a foreign language.
Current meta-analytical researches indicate that integrating mobile devices with teaching and learning yielded the impact on students' performance, but information on the influence of mobile assisted L2 pronunciation practice on cognitive and affective domains is scarce. Thus, our research aims to fill the gap in MALL studies of their benefits, addressing the two research questions: (1) whether implementing artificial intelligence (AI) assisted applications as Google Assistant or Apple's Siri in L2 pronunciation training contributes to enhancing L2 listening proficiency, and (2) to increase L2 learning motivation. 
As of 2021, 74 Korean-speaking learners of English in the three intact writing classes were randomly assigned into three groups: Control (N = 25), Intervention Groups I (N = 25) where provided with a 4-week of explanation about Korean-accented English (KoE), and Intervention Group II (N = 24) where received the 4-week a mobile application pronunciation training along with the KoE explanation. A listening test and the questionnaire survey adopted from Attitude and Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985) were administered ten weeks apart using pre- and post-test design. The motivation part of AMTB was used and consisted of a 20-item questionnaire measuring two motivational dimensions of language learning motivation: Motivational Intensity (MI) and Desire to Learn English.
Our results indicate that the mobile-assisted pronunciation practice made an improvement on L2 listening proficiency as well as motivational level. When the scores between pretest and posttest for the listening test using a repeated measure ANOVA test for each group, it was only in Intervention Group II (those practiced with AI mobile app) that the difference between the listening test scores was significant, Mean Difference (MD) = 7.667 (11.2%), F(1.60, 36.8) = 9.60, p < .01.
Similarly, paired-t-tests of the two motivational dimensions show that the learners' motivational levels in Intervention Group I and Control Group generally remained the same moderate level in pre- and post-test even with some slight increases: Intervention Group I MD = 1.12 (2.82%); Control Group MD = 0.24 (0.57%). However, the findings showed a significant improvement in the mean scores on MI before and after an instruction using mobile applications, MD = 3.04 (14.8%), t(23) = -3.187, p = .004.
These results clearly show that L2 pronunciation training using AI-assisted mobile applications benefits not just the L2 listening proficiency (cognitive level) but also improves motivational intensity for L2 learning (affective domain), suggesting that MALL instruction should be encouraged in L2 teaching and learning.


Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning. London: Arnold.

For over a decade, the field of second language acquisition has been distinguished by increasing methodological awareness (a "methodological turn", as defined by Byrnes 2013: 825), reflected in careful considerations of research quality, especially in terms of study design, quantitative analysis and results reporting. Parallel attention has been dedicated to researcher training, through workshops, summer schools and publications (a notable example being the papers in Plonsky 2015). While this trend is undoubtedly a positive and an important one, it is characterised by a heavy focus on academia, including an emphasis on graduate students (see e.g. Plonsky 2020), and excluding both undergraduate students and industry positions related to second languages. 
This paper builds on these existing trends by presenting the results of the Erasmus+ project UPgrading the SKIlls of Linguistics and Language Students - UPSKILLS, a strategic partnership between higher education and research institutions from Malta, Serbia, Croatia, Italy, Austria, the Netherlands and Switzerland. The project seeks to identify and tackle the skill gaps of linguistics and language students, with the goal of making their university education, starting from the BA level, more compatible with the requirements of the contemporary job market. The project grew out from combined academia and industry insights related to the changes in the way the study of language(s) can be and frequently is approached in the era of big data and artificial intelligence. 
The focus of the paper is on the relevance of the UPSKILLS' results specifically for students in SLA-related courses, particularly BA students who are likely to opt for an SLA-related career. Findings will be presented of an extensive needs analysis, which included a survey of existing language and linguistics curricula across European universities, as well as questionnaires for and interviews with representatives of the language industry. These findings, summarised in the format of a new target professional profile for language and linguistics students, that of language data and project specialist, point to the need for including, in language-related curricula, not only more quantitative data analysis, but also (largely) novel areas such as programming and machine learning, as well as more practical tasks similar to those typically required in companies (e.g., language data annotation and curation). 
A set of open access teaching/learning materials will also be presented, which are currently being developed for areas identified as in need of enhancement, and which are intended as supporting resources to be embedded in existing programmes of study, either within current courses or as new curriculum components. Finally, an interactive tool that connects the language data and project specialist profile to the teaching/learning materials will be showcased and ways in which it can help SLA lecturers will be illustrated.


References
Byrnes, H. (2013). Notes from the Editor. The Modern Language Journal 97(4). 825-827.
Plonsky, L. (Ed.) (2020). Professional Development in Applied Linguistics: A guide to success for graduate students and early career faculty. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Plonsky, L. (Ed.) (2015). Advancing Quantitative Methods in Second Language Research. New York and London: Routledge.

Recent linguistic research on language acquisition has highlighted and significantly advanced our understanding of implicit learning from language use but has not in equal measures contributed to enhancing teaching practices. This is partially because the focus of applied research has been on instructed learning and most teaching practices rely in one way or another on learners' explicit knowledge about their target language. The purpose of the current study is to adopt insights from recent linguistic research for instructed classroom teaching and to determine whether foreign language learners are able to use usage-based descriptions as explicit knowledge basis for approaching unfamiliar grammatical domains of their target language. In an experimental mixed-design decision task, two groups of adult Chinese learners of German received worksheets with usage-based descriptions of case alternation in the context of two-way prepositions, illustrated in (1). 
a. Die Mönche reisen in die Gelben Berge. / the monks travel in the-ACC Yellow Mountains / "The monks travel to the Yellow Mountains."
b. Die Mönche reisen in den Gelben Bergen. / the monks travel in the-DAT Yellow Mountains-DAT / "The monks travel in the Yellow Mountains."
As seen in (1), accusative occurs with telic movement that crosses into a region (1a), whereas dative indicates atelic movement inside a bounded region (1b). This difference in meaning is described in cognitive grammar by different image schema diagrams (Langacker 1999). On the other hand, recent corpus-linguistic research suggests that in many contexts case is determined not by meaning but by lexical usage patterns involving clusters of typical verbs and specific prepositions (Jach 2021). The descriptions were followed by lists of target instances from different authentic contexts and then participants had to decide on the target case by matching descriptions to instances. The results of uni- and multivariate analyses indicated that the learners were able to use both image schema diagrams and lexical prototypes as auxiliary models for processing and categorizing instances but that their ability to do so changed with their proficiency, the type of description they received, and the context of the instances they encountered. This is discussed in terms of noticing and intake. Grammatical descriptions highlight particular features of the learners' input but background others, which leads to intake in some contexts but miscategorizations in others. This closely interacts with learners' proficiency and their changing ability to make sense of the descriptions and to derive valid pattern recognizers for input processing. This has implications for future usage-based research on the influence of explicit knowledge on implicit learning, the hierarchical structure of their interface, and the development of linguistically informed teaching practices.
References
Jach, Daniel. "Revisiting German two-way prepositions: Towards a usage-based account of case". Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft, vol. 40, no. 2, 2021, pp. 95-133. https://doi.org/10.1515/zfs-2021-2029
Langacker, Ronald W. "Assessing the cognitive linguistic enterprise". Cognitive Linguistics: Foundations, Scope, and Methodology, edited by Theo Janssen and Gisela Redeker, Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2010, pp. 13-60. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110803464.13

Over recent years research has shown that drama in language teaching forms a stepping stone towards foreign language oral proficiency (Ryan-Scheutz and Colangelo 2004, Marini-Maio 2010, Galante & Thomson 2017, Bora 2021). However, whilst most studies related to drama and theatre were implemented at the university level or as an extracurricular activity, the effectiveness of drama pedagogy within a compulsory school curriculum is currently under-researched (Omasta and Snyder-Young 2014). Furthermore, no study using contemporary dramatic texts and a full-scale performance up to date quantified the impact of such approaches on L2 learners' oral performance in terms of specific CAF (complexity, accuracy and fluency) dimensions. Thus, the present study investigates the potential role of contemporary authentic plays as text and performance to gauge oral skill development longitudinally on various indicators of fluency and complexity. Final year high school Italian learners with a low-intermediate to upper-intermediate level of English took part in the study. An experimental group (N=10) was exposed to two interventions conducted over a term each: self-standing play extracts and drama games followed by a process-oriented full-scale performance whilst a control group (N=10) was taught through a traditional approach. Quantitative data has been collected through the implementation of an oral pre-test, a mid-test and a post-test with three tasks both dialogic and monologic: oral proficiency interview, story retelling from a written stimulus and a guided role-play. Findings regarding (sub) components of fluency - repair fluency, break-down fluency, speed fluency, mean length of run and phonation time ratio - and lexical diversity will be discussed. Results lend support to previous hypotheses regarding the effectiveness of drama-based approaches to enhancing these specific constructs of oral communication.
References: 
Alex Housen, Folkert Kuiken, Ineke Vedder (2012). Dimensions of L2 Performance and Proficiency. Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in SLA, Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bora, F. Simona (2021). Taking Literature off Page: the Effectiveness of a Blended-drama Approach for Enhancing L2 Oral Accuracy, Pronunciation and Complexity, in Language Teaching Research, on-line, DOI:10.1177/13621688211043490 
Galante, Angelica & Thomson, Ron (2017). The Effectiveness of Drama as an Instructional Approach for the Development of Second Language Oral Fluency, Comprehensibility and Accentedness, in Tesol Quarterly, 51 (1), 115-142. 
Marini-Maio, Nicoletta (2010). Full-Scale Play Production: Filling the "Empty Space" between Language and Literature with Fo and Pirandello, in Marini-Maio, N. & Ryan-Scheutz, C., Set the Stage! Teaching Italian through Theatre: Theories, Methods and Practices, New Haven-Yale, 239-266.
Omasta, M. & Snyder-Young, D. (2014). Gaps, Silences and Comfort zones: Dominant Paradigms in Educational Drama in Applied Theatre Discourse, in Research in Drama Education: The Journal of Applied Theatre and Performance, 19, 7–22.
Palloti, Gabriele (2015). CAF: Defining, Refining and Differentiating Constructs, in Applied Linguistics, 30(40), 590-601.
Ryan-Scheutz, Colleen & Colangelo, Laura M. (2004). Full-Scale Theater Production and Foreign Language Learning, in Foreign Language Annals 37, 374-389.

Abstract words (AWs) refer to words with similar semantic features addressing something that is not tangible in real life. They are divided into emotional and non-emotional words. Interest in studying these words has increased following classical models. Although these models offered valuable insights regarding the mechanism of storing these words at the verbal level, the representation of these words requires further scrutiny. More recent studies have proven that the role of embodied emotionality is significant in processing these words at the cognitive level among monolinguals (Kousta et al., 2009; Vigliocco et al., 2013). This thesis examines how these words are treated by two levels of L2 speakers of English, highlighting the differences between beginners and advanced L2 speakers, compared to monolinguals as a control group. This study aims to investigate whether the L2 lexicon is able to establish embodied emotionality for these words, and whether L2 speakers process AWs differently. It analyses three experiments, starting with the scale rating of emotionality, and short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).By using a range of different statistical tests, the data obtained from these experiments suggest that not all AWs are stored in the same way, as some of these words showed different levels of emotionality together with various memory patterns. The results of scale rating showed a difference between emotional and non-emotional words rather than on the type of the lexicon. As for memory capacity, the memory patterns did not show any difference between emotional and non-emotional words in STM. More complicated patterns emerged in LTM between various types of AWs on the one hand, and with the influence of language proficiency on the other. These patterns were grouped into dominant and secondary patterns. The first pattern in LTM emerged in the differences between the two types of emotional words among both beginners and advanced L2 speakers. Both types of emotional words presented a consistent pattern of memory together with an interaction with the level of language proficiency. The second pattern observed in the analysis was found in the pattern of non-emotional words in LTM. Non-emotional words in particular displayed unexpected memory patterns, depending on both the level of emotionality and the level of language proficiency. The thesis concluded that there was a positive association between memory performance and level of emotionality. This relation enhances the recallability of these words. However, the nature of memory tasks and the type of AWs affect this relation.


References
Kousta, S., Vinson, D., & Vigliocco, G. (2009). Emotion words, regardless of polarity, have a processing advantage over neutral words. Cognition, 112, 473–481. 
Vigliocco, G., Kousta, S., Vinson, D., Andrews, M., & Del Campo, E. (2013). The representation of abstract words: What matters? Reply to Paivio's (2013) comment on Kousta et al. (2011). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 142(1), 288–291.

The current study investigates the effect of three FL learning emotions (enjoyment, anxiety and boredom) on the flow experience of 165 Arab and Kurdish EFL students in in-person and online classes.
The concept of flow was introduced by Csíkszentmihályi (1990) and refers to a consciousness that is harmoniously ordered where thoughts, actions, and emotions become well-coordinated in performing a challenging task. Piniel and Albert (2019) pointed out that the topic of flow is still under-researched in SLA despite its motivational qualities. 
The current study expands Dewaele and MacIntyre (to appear) who focused on the relationships between two learner emotions and experience of flow. The authors found that Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) was a significantly stronger predictor of flow than Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA). Flow was found to become more frequent, stronger and more social as learners advanced in their FL learning journey.
Data were collected through an online questionnaire. The independent variables included FLE which was measured using the 9-item Short FLE Scale (Botes et al., 2021), complemented by the 8-item FLCAS (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). Foreign Language Classroom Boredom (FLCB) was measured through an 8-item scale (Li et al., 2020). The dependent variable was proportion of time in a state of flow based on the average value (0% - 100%) of four items extracted from Larson and Csíkszentmihályi (2014).
A t-test revealed that the proportion of time that the learners spent in a state of flow was larger in in-person than in online classes. Multiple regression analyses showed that FLE was a significant positive predictor of flow while FLCB was a significant negative predictor. FLCA had no effect on flow. We argue that the negative effect of FLCA on FL performance is neutralised when the learner reaches a state of flow. Being in flow frees the learner temporarily from FLCA. The pedagogical implication is that a positive, enjoyable, suitably challenging and exciting classroom environment can allow flow to emerge and to persist through a whole session.
References
Botes, E., Dewaele, J.-M. & Greiff, S. (2021). The Development of a Short-Form Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale. The Modern Language Journal https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12741
Csíkszentmihályi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper Collins.
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P.D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4, 237–274. 
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P.D. (to appear). "You can't start a fire without a spark". Enjoyment, Anxiety and the Emergence of Flow in FL Classrooms. Applied Linguistic Review
Larson, R. & Csíkszentmihályi, M. (2014). Experience Sampling Method. In M. Csíkszentmihályi (Ed.), Flow and the Foundations of Positive Psychology (pp. 21-34). Springer.
Li, C., Dewaele, J.-M., & Hu, Y. (2020). Foreign language learning boredom: conceptualization and measurement. Applied Linguistics Review, https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2020-0124
Piniel, K. & Albert, A. (2019). Motivation and Flow. In M. Lamb, K. Csizér, Henry, A., & S. Ryan (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Motivation for Language Learning (pp. 579-597). PalgraveMacmillan.

Research on language socialization in bilingual families has shown that parents may respond in different ways to children's language choices (Döpke, 1992; Lanza, 2007). Lanza (2007) discussed five types of parental discourse strategies (PDS) that adults may use when children switch from language A to language B in a conversation - see Table 1.pdf
These strategies vary in the extent to which they create expectations about language choice. More monolingual PDSs signal to the child that they should interact in a specific language; more bilingual PDSs signal that they can interact in either language. An example of the former is Minimal Grasp where the parent pretends not to understand the child. An example of the latter is Code Switch where the parent switches to the other language, too.
PDSs have been proposed to play an important role in language socialization and language transmission (de Houwer, 2007), but have mainly been investigated in small-scale studies (Döpke, 1992; Lanza, 2007). Hence, it is still unknown how PDSs are used in (different types of) bilingual families. The current study investigated which PDSs were used in relation to (i) family language use patterns (e.g., one-parent-one-language, minority language at home) and (ii) language dominance.
Questionnaire data were analyzed from 101 multilingual families with two- and three-year-old children (M = 3;3 months; SD = 0;7) in the Netherlands. Parents reported which languages they spoke to their child, how often, and which PDSs they used. They also rated their child's proficiency level in each language.
Families were categorized into four family language patterns: One-Parent-One-Language (n = 17), Minority language at home (n = 15), One parent mixes (n = 32), and Both parents mix (n = 37). Frequencies of PDSs varied per pattern such that Minimal Grasp was relatively frequent in One-Parent-One-Language families (12%) as opposed the other patterns (each 0%). Code Switch was relatively frequent in Both parents mix (20%) and One parent mixes (25%) families as compared to One-Language (2%) and Minority language at home (7%) families. However, these differences were relative: all patterns co-occurred with all strategies. As to language dominance, parents of children who were relatively balanced in their languages used monolingual PDSs most often (61% Minimal Grasp + Expressed Guess + Adult Repetition), whereas parents of children who were dominant in one of their languages used bilingual PDSs most often (63% Move On + Code Switch).
These findings show that use of PDSs varies across different family language patterns, and is related to language dominance. Note, however, that the directionality of the relationship with language dominance is unclear. These data constitute a first step towards investigating PDS more systematically. Suggestions for further research will be discussed.

Grammatical gender in Welsh is a persistent area of difficulty in child bilingual acquisition but not in adult control data (Binks & Thomas, 2019; Sharp, 2012). Typically gender production has been investigated through its use in combination with the complex morphophonological mutation system, which are consonant-initial alternations, e.g., the Welsh determiner 'y' triggering soft mutation (SM) on feminine nouns, cath > y gath (the cat) but not on masculine nouns, ci > y ci (the dog). This study extends these findings to disambiguate the representation of Welsh gender, by establishing whether gender is as robust when encoded through or independent of mutations. Our research questions are:
1. Do Welsh-English adult bilinguals make use of grammatical gender in production? 
2. What affect does the mutation system have on the production of gender?
A battery of tasks was administered including the BLP, elicited imitation task and two cloze tests (English and Welsh). Data were collected from 40 self-reported Welsh-English bilingual adults (19 females; age: 19-64). The EI task contained four contexts to disentangle gender from mutations:
Mutation independent of gender using pre-nominal adjectives triggering SM on nouns irrespective of gender: ceffyl [m] > hen geffyl (old horse)  Gender independent of mutation using the gendered numeral four: pluen [f] > pedair pluen (four feather) Gender encoded locally using the gendered numeral two triggering SM: merch [f] > dwy ferch (two girl)  Gender encoded in distant contexts using 3rd person singular pronouns as distant references: troed [f] > ar ei droed (on his foot)The EI task results show that participants performed best when gender was independent of mutations (M=94%, SD=8.1%), producing nouns in their bare form. Performance was next best when mutation was separate from gender (M=91%, SD=6.5%). However, accuracy decreases when the systems operate together, when gender was encoded through mutations locally (M=76%, SD=20.7%) and in distance contexts (M=82%, SD=13.8%). These results indicate a stronger representation of the gender system when used separately from mutations, suggesting that speakers encounter difficulties when the systems are used in conjunction with one another. It may be possible to account for the results under the MISH(Prévost & White, 2000), arguing that the speakers have underlying syntactic representations of gender but have trouble spelling gender-marked forms when involved with the intricate mutation system during production.
A follow up experiment using a self-paced reading task, currently underway, will examine Welsh speakers' processing of gender, encoded through and independent of mutations and the possible effects of working, procedural and declarative memory. 
References
Binks, H., & Thomas, E. (2019). Long-term outcomes for bilinguals in minority language contexts: Welsh–English teenagers' performance on measures of grammatical gender and plural morphology in Welsh. Applied Psycholinguistics, 40(4), 1019-1049. 
Prévost, P., & White, L. (2000). Missing Surface Inflection or Impairment in second language acquisition? Evidence from tense and agreement. Second Language Research, 16(2):103–133. 
Sharp, M. (2012). Morphosyntactic Complexity and Exposure in the Acquisition of Gender in Welsh. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Bangor University. 

In recent years, the relationship between learners' out-of-school engagement with English (or Extramural English (EE); Sundqvist, 2009) and their English language proficiency has been gaining traction. Research has shown the benefits of EE for language learning in instructed settings (e.g. Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013; Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015), as well as for learners with no prior English instruction (e.g. De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019). While EE effects on most language proficiency measures – vocabulary in particular – have been largely investigated, little is known about the link between EE and grammar knowledge and writing performance prior to formal instruction (see De Wilde et al., 2020, for an exception on an integrated reading-and-writing test).
The present study aims to enhance our understanding of the role of EE in young EFL learners' language acquisition process, by examining whether extramural exposure is related to L2 learners' English grammar knowledge and writing proficiency prior to formal instruction. More specifically, we investigate the effect of different types of EE (e.g. watching TV, listening to music, gaming) and a number of learner-related variables (e.g. monolingual vs. multilingual learners, SES).
Data are currently being collected with Dutch-speaking children in grade 6 (age 11-12), who had not received any formal English instruction (n = 228 so far; estimated n = 520). Participants were administered an English grammaticality judgement test (Pfenninger, 2014) and a writing test from the European Survey on Language Competences (European Commission, 2012). Extramural English was measured by means of a learner questionnaire and a language diary. The data were analyzed using inferential statistics.
Based on our pilot data, we hypothesize that extramural English is positively related to EFL learners' grammaticality judgement. Furthermore, we expect to find a positive relation between EE and writing proficiency, in line with Sundqvist and Wikström's (2015) study on gaming, as the pilot comprised a large proportion of gamers and suggested that some participants already obtained an A2 or B1 level according to the CEFR.
References
De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2020). Learning English through out-of-school exposure. Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important ? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23, 171–185.
European Commission. (2012). First European Survey on Language Competences. https://doi.org/10.2766/34160
Lindgren, E., & Muñoz, C. (2013). The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners' foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism, 10(1), 105–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2012.679275
Pfenninger, S. E. (2014). The misunderstood variable: Age effects as a function of type of instruction. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 3, 529–556. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.3.8
Puimège, E., & Peters, E. (2019). Learners' English vocabulary knowledge prior to formal instruction: The role of learner-related and word-related variables. Language Learning, 69(4), 943–977. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12364
Sundqvist, P. (2009). Extramural English matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders' oral proficiency and vocabulary. Karlstad University, Sweden.
Sundqvist, P., & Wikström, P. (2015). Out-of-school digital gameplay and in-school L2 English vocabulary outcomes. System, 51, 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2015.04.001